The first Chanukkah was celebrated in 164 BCE, when the Maccabees and their small army defeated the army of Antiochus Epiphanes and won back the Temple. Many assume that the custom of lighting the chanukkiyah must date from that time. But the First Book of Maccabees, which was written shortly after these events makes no mention of lighting candles. The festival referred to is, rather, the postponed festival of Sukkot which the Jews were unable to celebrate during the war.
The Second Book of Maccabees preserves a letter, apparently written by Judah the Maccabee to the Jews of Alexandria, which makes the connection between the days of Sukkot and fire.
The letter refers to the fire that burnt constantly in the Temple of Solomon and which miraculously descended from the heavens. It claims that this holy flame was protected and hidden by the prophet Jeremiah when the Temple was destroyed and rediscovered when Nehemiah founded the Second Temple.
Although not stated explicitly, the implication is that the flame lit by the Maccabees was ignited by a miracle. But there is still no mention of lighting candles. Even the Jewish-Roman historian Josephus in his book Antiquities of the Jews says that he doesn’t know why Chanukkah is called ‘The Festival of Lights’. There is no evidence that he lit candles on the festival of Chanukkah.
Chanukkah appears to be an insignificant festival in the Jewish calendar – there is no special tractate devoted to Chanukkah in the Mishnah, which was composed at the beginning of the third century CE.
When the Mishnah does mention the festival, it is in the context of liability for damage if a fire breaks out: ‘If a camel, laden with flax is passing through the public domain, and its flax extends into a store and the flax catches fire from a lamp in the store, setting fire to the store, the owner of the camel is liable. If the lamp is outside, causing the flax on the camel to catch fire and the building is set on fire, the storekeeper is liable.’
And then we have this statement from Rabbi Yehudah: ‘In a case where the lamp placed outside was a Chanukkah lamp, the storekeeper is exempt, since it is a mitzvah for a Chanukkah lamp to be placed outside’ (mBava Kama 6:6).
Clearly Rabbi Yehudah considers the lighting of candles on Chanukkah to be a religious commandment that would exempt the storekeeper from liability in a legal dispute. But the editor of the Mishnah, Rabbi Judah the Prince who was a disciple of Rabbi Yehudah doesn’t mention it at all.
This might suggest that sometime in the second century, after the time of Josephus and before the time of Rabbi Yehudah, Jews began lighting a Chanukkah candle, although it wasn’t seen as a religious obligation by Judah the Prince.
Where might the lighting of candles or tapers come from? The Romans celebrated a festival called Saturnalia, dedicated to the Roman god Saturn at this time of the year. It was a time of feasting and resting especially for soldiers who had no weekends or holidays throughout the rest of the year. One of the customs was lighting tapers or torches, another was decorating one’s home with evergreen wreaths and giving gifts.
In the third century CE, Abba Arikha, more commonly known as Rav, brought the custom of lighting a Chanukkah candle from Palestine to Babylonia. It was Rav, as well, who composed the blessing we recite before lighting the candles. Rav’s intellectual opponent, Samuel disliked the custom, asking: ‘Does a candle hold holiness?’ (bShabbat 22a).
Both Rav and Samuel argued over whether it was permissible to use a Chanukkah light to light another candle, but in time it appeared that the lighting of candles gained in importance and another blessing was added to the ritual – although Rav’s blessing only refers to one candle – l’hadlik ner shel Chanukkah.
So when did the practice of lighting eight candles and the shammash develop? The Talmud teaches that the tradition of lighting a single candle eventually gave way to the custom of lighting multiple candles:
‘The Sages taught: the mitzvah of Chanukkah is each day to have a light kindled by one person for himself and his household. And the mehadrin (i.e. those who are meticulous in the performance of the mitzvot) kindle a light for each and every one in the household. And the mehadrin of the mehadrin (i.e. the very meticulous): Beit Shammai says: on the first day eight are kindled and from then on the candles are gradually decreased. And Beit Hillel says: on the first day one light is kindled and from then on the number of candles are increased (bShabbat 21b).
It wasn’t until around the fourth century or later, that this passage referring to eight candles was added and in this same sugya we learn about other traditions with which we are familiar; for example placing the chanukkiyah in the window to proclaim the miracle. And from Rabbi Abba ben Yosef bar Rama, known as Rava that another candle had to be provided to provide light for regular use in addition to the Chanukkah candles. Eventually that extra light evolved into the shammash, the servant candle.
So, the ritual of lighting eight candles on the chanukkiyah developed over a very long period of about five hundred years from the Maccabean rebellion to the period of the composition of the Talmud. Although its seeds may have been planted during the time of the Books of Maccabees, Jewish practice was influenced by the customs of the Roman-pagan neighbours of the Jews. And it took even longer, until the middle of the eighth century, for the prayer known as Ha-nerot halalu to be codified in a minor tractate of the Talmud known as Massechet Soferim, in which the lights of Chanukkah are described as kodesh – holy. ‘We are not permitted to use them but only to gaze upon them, so that their light may move us to give thanks for God’s wonderful acts of deliverance’ (Soferim 20:6).
The long, unfolding history of Chanukkah from a military victory to something numinous and mysterious, upholding faith in difficult times, affirming goodness in times of hatred and violence.
As we celebrate our festival of Chanukkah, of dedication, may the light of the candles burn brightly in our hearts and help us rededicate ourselves to the objectives of our faith; to be true, to be good, to be compassionate, to be just, and to seek and to pursue peace at all times.
- Rabbi Alexandra Wright is Senior Rabbi of The Liberal Jewish Synagogue.